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Gallistel, C. R., and Karras, D. (1984). Pimozide and amphetamine have opposing effects on the reward summation function. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 20, 73–77. doi: 10.1016/0091-3057(84)90104-7 In his pioneering work in affective neuroscience, Panksepp proposed a set of highly conserved, “primal emotional systems” ( Panksepp and Yovell, 2014). He used the label “SEEKING” to refer to the system mediating investigative behaviors, approach, and “appetitive eagerness:” the highly motivating anticipation of hedonically positive events. He strongly emphasized the anticipatory quality of the emotion generated by activation of the SEEKING system and proposed that its neural substrate differs from that of the coveted hedonic experience. While the contrast between aversive and appetitive coding is often used to argue for valence vs salience (or valence vs arousal) coding across different brain regions 3, 13, 57, our measurement of actual learned salience across three different forms of punishing outcomes (airpuff, aversive taste and time-out) showed that despite their general negative valence, aversive object can vary on magnitude and even sign of salience. While airpuff associated objects tended to have higher salience than neutral objects (positive salience), saline and time-out object had similar or slightly lower salience compared to neutral objects (negative salience) (Figs. 2, 4, Supplementary Fig. 4, 6). Thus, without actual measurements, assertions about object salience in the aversive domain and the interpretation of neural responses may be ill-founded. Grisot, G., Haber, S. N., and Yendiki, A. (2021). Diffusion MRI and anatomic tracing in the same brain reveal common failure modes of tractography. NeuroImage 239:118300. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.118300

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Component marking and solderability can be tested and certified. Our electronic component testing service is offered to distributors, dealers, OEMs, Contract manufacturers and end users. Janssen, N. P., Hendriks, G. J., Baranelli, C. T., Lucassen, P., Voshaar, R. O., Spijker, J., et al. (2021). How Does Behavioural Activation Work? A Systematic Review of the Evidence on Potential Mediators. Psychother. Psychosomat. 90, 85–93. doi: 10.1159/000509820 Bishop, P. O., Burke, W., and Davis, R. (1962). The identification of single units in central visual pathways. J. Physiol. 162, 409–431. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1962.sp006942 Hernandez, G., Trujillo-Pisanty, I., Cossette, M.-P., Conover, K., and Shizgal, P. (2012). Role of dopamine tone in the pursuit of brain stimulation reward. J. Neurosci. 32, 11032–11041. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1051-12.2012To examine and contrast the role of prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia across domains of past experience with objects, acute neural recordings from ventrolateral PFC (vlPFC, areas 8Av, 46 v, and 45) and from caudo-dorsolateral substantia nigra reticulata (cdlSNr) were done in separate sessions in two macaque monkeys (monkeys B and R). Both subjects were previously trained with abstract fractal objects that had appetitive or aversive outcomes or just became familiar without any outcome association across multiple sessions (>5 sessions and >8 repetitions per object per session prior to start of recording for each fractal type, Methods) 5. To test whether the memory of these past experiences with objects is reflected in the visual responses of the corticobasal circuitry, neural responses to objects were recorded using a passive viewing procedure in the absence of any outcome for objects and in the absence of saccades (Methods) 19. Citation: Pallikaras V and Shizgal P (2022) The Convergence Model of Brain Reward Circuitry: Implications for Relief of Treatment-Resistant Depression by Deep-Brain Stimulation of the Medial Forebrain Bundle. Front. Behav. Neurosci. 16:851067. doi: 10.3389/fnbeh.2022.851067 Although many factors have been proposed as mediators for the antidepressant effect of behavioral activation, a recent systematic review of 21 potential mediators was inconclusive ( Dimidjian et al., 2011; Janssen et al., 2021). Consequently, to understand how behavioral activation works, the authors proposed that researchers should turn to the basic behavioral neuroscience of reward seeking ( Janssen et al., 2021). The most widely used psychiatric diagnostic manual lists anhedonia as one the two cardinal depressive symptoms ( American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Originally coined as the complete loss of pleasure ( Ribot, 1897), the concept of anhedonia has broadened and differentiated ( Treadway et al., 2012; Zald and Treadway, 2017). In contemporary research anhedonia is now operationalized using multiple sub-constructs. Among them are consummatory anhedonia: a reduction in hedonic perception, or enjoyment of rewards (the original definition); motivational anhedonia: a reduced capacity to expend effort in reward pursuit; and decisional anhedonia: an impairment in reward learning and goal selection ( Zald and Treadway, 2017). Niyogi, R. K., Breton, Y. A., Solomon, R. B., Conover, K., Shizgal, P., and Dayan, P. (2013). Optimal indolence: a normative microscopic approach to work and leisure. J. R. Soc. Interface 11, 20130969–20130969. doi: 10.1016/S0166-4328(02)00282-6

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Frank, R. A., and Williams, H. P. (1985). Both response effort and current intensity affect self-stimulation train duration thresholds. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 22, 527–530. doi: 10.1016/0091-3057(85)90269-2Wiegert, J. S., Mahn, M., Prigge, M., Printz, Y., and Yizhar, O. (2017). Silencing Neurons: Tools, Applications, and Experimental Constraints. Neuron 95, 504–529. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2017.06.050 Edmonds, D. E., and Gallistel, C. R. (1974). Parametric analysis of brain stimulation reward in the rat: III. Effect of performance variables on the reward summation function. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol. 87, 876–883. doi: 10.1037/h0037217 Fouriezos, G., Bielajew, C., and Pagotto, W. (1990). Task difficulty increases thresholds of rewarding brain stimulation. Behav. Brain Res. 37, 1–7. doi: 10.1016/0166-4328(90)90066-n Non-contingent delivery of free stimulation trains prior to a trial increases the vigor of subsequent stimulation-seeking behavior, a phenomenon called the “priming effect ( Gallistel, 1966; Edmonds and Gallistel, 1974).” Such non-contingent pretrial stimulation also exerts a powerful influence on reward selection. When a long delay intervened between delivery of non-contingent. pretrial stimulation, thirsty rats chose an arm of a T-maze that led to water, whereas after zero or short delays, they chose an alternate arm that led to a goal box in which rewarding stimulation was delivered ( Deutsch et al., 1964). Such energizing and directing effects are the two defining characteristics of motivation. That they can arise following non-contingent delivery of stimulation provides a conceptual link between the intracranial self-stimulation phenomenon and the hypothesis that deep-brain stimulation of the MFB may offset motivational anhedonia. That said, the priming effect of MFB stimulation can be construed as a rapidly decaying aftereffect of exposure to strong, episodic rewards ( Sax and Gallistel, 1991). If the priming effect is to be linked convincingly to the antidepressant action of MFB stimulation in humans, it must be demonstrated that continuous non-contingent stimulation can exert a motivational influence on self-stimulation performance. Below, we discuss how such an experiment could be done. Measurement of Electrical Intracranial Self-Stimulation West, D. C., and Wolstencroft, J. H. (1983). Strength-duration characteristics of myelinated and non-myelinated bulbospinal axons in the cat spinal cord. J. Physiol. 337, 37–50. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1983.sp014610