Wilson, D.G.M. (2013). Redefining Shamanisms: Spiritualist Mediums and Other Traditional Shamans as Apprenticeship Outcomes. London: Continuum. But I cannot and should not go against the guidance of those I care for in the world unseen, and that is what has led me to this outcome. The Freudian psychoanalytic perspective treats spirit possession as a form of culturally shaped hysteria, which itself refers to an ‘irrational emotional state caused by repressed oedipal desires in the unconscious’. 25 Other psychoanalytic interpretations of spirit possession emphasize ‘past traumatic and distressful experiences’ 26 in the lives of the possessed, and suggest that the behaviours and psychological sensations associated with the possession state are symbolic symptoms of the unconscious repression of such experiences, converted from the psychological to physical symptoms through a process known as ‘conversion’ or ‘somatization’. 27 He was not willing to disclose the identity of the medium involved, but told me: “. . . five working mediums contributed to the protocol, collectively drawing upon the support from their spirit teams.” He followed this with a lengthy quote from pioneer Emma Hardinge Britten which space limitations will unfortunately not allow me to reproduce here. The performative aspect of spirit possession has been a key area of study within anthropology and the social sciences more generally. Spirit possession rituals exist at the threshold between subjective trance experience and public performance. The performative aspect can take the form of elaborate enactments of cosmic dramas, as in the case of South Indian Theyyam performances, 59 or elaborate rituals of self-mortification, as found in traditional forms of Taiwanese spirit mediumship, 60 or simply as subtle bodily alterations to distinguish between personalities in Spiritualist trance mediumship. 61

Altered States of ConsciousnessMost spirit possession practices employ some form of altered state of consciousness to initiate spirit incorporation. The state is usually referred to in the literature as ‘trance’, but this is a particularly broad category and there are a range of different trance states. Clairsentience is a French word which means ‘clear sensing’ and is an enhanced form of intuition. The majority of what most mediums perceive comes in this form and it requires some interpretation by them, which is where it can sometimes break down. However, it is the string on which the other two types can be threaded. Most mediums are primarily, or exclusively, clairsentients. Goff, D.C., Brotman, A.W., Kindlon, D., Waites, M., & Amico, E. (1991). ‘The Delusion of Possession in Chronically Psychotic Patients.’ Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease,Vol. 179, No. 9. Trance states: Some mediums enter a trance state in which they become more receptive to spiritual communication. It is important to note that trance states should only be attempted under the guidance of an experienced practitioner. Mediums who work with trance states should also take care to protect their own energy and well-being, as these practices can be physically and emotionally demanding. How does someone become a medium? The passing of the great materialisation medium Alec Harris in 1974 seems to have marked a watershed in physical mediumship. Since then, there has been no reported instance of full materialisation in light, a mystery over which many of us have puzzled, including our physical mediums.

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Functionalist approaches suggest that social phenomena perform specific social functions that help to maintain the solidarity and cohesion of the social group. More recent research, however, has demonstrated that the distinction between the ideal shaman as a controller of the spirits, and the ideal medium as entirely under the control of the spirits, is often blurred. 86 Wilson has also criticised the classically assumed distinction between spirit mediumship and shamanism, and has proposed that spirit mediumship, and in particular Euro-American Spiritualist mediumship, can be thought of as a variety of shamanism, with mediumship development seen as a form of shamanic apprenticeship. 87 This can be unnerving or first time sitters, as it initially appears that the medium has taken on the appearance of the discarnate spirit. This explains why there are some misconceptions about physical mediumship and possession. The combination of this strange transformation and popular culture references fuel ideas that the spirit is in clear control of the medium, perhaps taking over to the point of possession. This is not the case at all. There is a strong communicative link with control and a telepathic rapport that lets the spirit through to the Earth plan to communicate via this method. Is it a harmonious, respectful two-way system, and has to be for the process to work. Other physical phenomena that is visible through physical mediumship. At the end of our incredible mediumship demonstrations, we are often asked: 'How does a medium work?' Well, The College of Psychic Studies is a good place to ask! Our expert tutors train our students to be the very bestpsychics, mediums and intuitivesthey can be. And part of that training is, of course, learning the steps of how mediumship works. But before we explore that, let's first get clear on an all-important question... What is a medium? Arguably, the most widely-known functionalist approach to spirit possession is IM Lewis’s social-protest theory; this suggests that spirit possession groups perform the essential social function of allowing women in male dominated societies (or any other socially peripheral group) to express their discontent in a socially-acceptable manner. When in the possessed state, Lewis argues, an individual is ‘totally blameless’ for his or her actions; the responsibility lies rather with the spirits. 7 This interpretation sees mediumship and spirit possession traditions as ‘thinly disguised protest movements directed against the dominant sex,’ or group. 8

In her study of a Spiritualist home-circle in a Welsh town in the late 1960s, Vieda Skultans (1974) focused on the therapeutic and supportive elements of Spiritualism as its main attraction for adherents. She interpreted Spiritualist practice and belief as a coping strategy for the women of ‘Welshtown’ in light of their traditional feminine roles as ‘housewife, mother and sexual partner’. 22 According to Skultans, and in line with Lewis’s hypothesis, Spiritualism provided these women with a means to escape their normal day-to-day circumstances, at least for the duration of the circle meetings: Emmons, C.F. (2008). ‘On Becoming a Spirit Medium in a “Rational” Society.’ Anthropology of Consciousness, Vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 71-82. Crabtree, A. (1988). Multiple Man: Explorations in Possession and Multiple Personality.London: Grafton Books.More recent research has focused on the therapeutic potential of mediumship practices for the bereaved, especially in the Western context. 24 Psychoanalytic Interpretations If you’re not familiar with PM, it’s worth my briefly explaining what it’s all about, and why it matters.

It’s easy to get carried away with mediumship. It’s a natural gift and subject to laws and limitations, not all of which we understand. It’s therefore important to subject everything to the test of reason. According to Maurice Barbanell, the medium of Silver Birch, “You should never put a psychic explanation on an event, if a normal explanation fits the facts.” In other words, keep your feet firmly on the ground, but be open to many possibilities. Laughlin, C.D. (2013). ‘Dreaming and Reality: A Neuroanthropological Account.’ International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, Vol. 32, pp. 64-78. Skultans, V. (1974). Intimacy and Ritual: A Study of Spiritualism, Mediums and Groups. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. A medium is someone who isable to communicate with the spirit of those who have passed on from the physical plane, as well asother non-physical entities. Let's call them etheric-world intelligences. Mediums are able to tune in with etheric-world intelligences to bring forward information. You can be psychic - that is, you are able to intuit or receive information about a person, place or situation - but that does not necessarily mean you are a medium (yet! You can certainly train to become a medium). Mediums, however, are very likely to be psychic. How does a medium work?

Tart, C. (2000). ‘Investigating Altered States on their own Terms: State-Specific Science.’ In M. Velmans (ed.) (2000). Investigating Phenomenal Consciousness: New Methodologies and Maps. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Castillo (1994) has argued that pathological approaches to the study of spirit possession in anthropology have traditionally tended towards one of three dominant perspectives: Freudian psychoanalytic theory, Pierre Janet’s dissociation theory and the generic non-pathological altered states of consciousness perspective (see below). Peres, J.F, Moreira-Almeida, A., Ciaxeta, L., Leao, F., Newberg, A. (2012). ‘Neuroimaging During Trance State: A Contribution to the Study of Dissociation.’ PLoS ONE, Vol. 7, No. 11, pp. 1-9. Lambek, M. (1998). ‘The Sakalava Poiesis of History: Realizing the Past through Spirit Possession in Madagascar.’ American Ethnologist, Vol. 25, No. 2, pp. 106-127.