Key contributions: Popularizing existentialism; summarizing the existential perspective in the phrase existence precedes essence; developing existentialism as a philosophy of freedom The functionalist idea is, in some forms, quite ancient. One can find in Aristotle the idea that things have their functions or purposes—their telos— essentially. In contemporary theories applied to the mind, the functions in question are usually taken to be those that mediate between stimulus (and psychological) inputs and behavioral (and psychological) outputs. Hilary Putnam’s contribution was to model these functions using the contemporary idea of computing machines and programs, where the program of the machine fixes how it mediates between its inputs and standing states, on one hand, and outputs and other standing states, on the other. Modern computers demonstrate that quite complex processes can be implemented in finite devices working by basic mechanical principles. If minds are functional devices of this sort, then one can begin to understand how physical human bodies can produce the tremendous variety of actions and reactions that are associated with our full, rich mental lives. The best theory, Putnam hypothesized, is that mental states are functional states—that the kind mind is a functional kind.

Proponents of knowledge have come up with fascinating ways of answering the challenges from skepticism and securing our sense that we can indeed have rational beliefs that count as real knowledge. Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980): Heidegger’s most celebrated pupil, and the leading French existentialist. Philosopher, novelist, playwright, and political activist, Sartre lived the existential mantra of engagement in the world. One of the most natural and normal human assumptions is that of free will. Most people think they face real choices all the time, perhaps even every moment, and are free in their making of those choices.To start with, I think some of the best philosophy books for beginners comes from the A Very Short Introduction series, published by Oxford University Press. Skeptics like Pyrrho and Sextus thought that we should live our daily lives in accordance with appearances, but that we should refrain from drawing any conclusions from those appearances as well as from holding any firm beliefs based on those appearances. The point of this caution was always the goal of unperturbedness of spirit, and ultimately a sort of peaceful happiness of life. The 19th-century philosophical wild man, Friedrich Nietzsche, took it one more step and even went so far as to characterize philosophy as an explosive, in the presence of which everything is in danger. So, then, it really comes as no surprise to see Nietzsche’s predecessor, the English poet John Keats, asking, Do not all charms fly at the mere touch of cold philosophy? Dualists, by contrast, think there are two fundamental substances or sorts of stuff in reality: typically, matter and mind, or energy and thought. Here, I’ll focus mainly on Western philosophy. I’ll create another book list about Eastern philosophers at a later time.

You think, therefore you are. Get a straightforward rundown on philosophy from the ancient world to today Overall, I absolutely love the book’s eye-catching presentation. There are a ton of beautiful illustrations that help make complex philosophical discussions far more digestible to the casual reader. The first great skeptical philosopher of the ancient world was Pyrrho of Elis (circa 310–270 B.C.). After traveling with Alexander the Great as a court philosopher, Pyrrho returned home to teach great crowds of admirers and seekers. He was known for presenting philosophy as a way of life that aims at a calmness of the spirit and happiness of the heart. Whether you think you are just your body, or that you are something more than that is often closely tied to a broader question about the universe: Is there just one sort of fundamental substance in reality, like matter, or one-dimensional strings of energy out of which everything else is made, in all the wonderful diversity of the world? Or could there be more than one fundamental reality composing the wide variety of things? You can see in examining this question how many of the others considered by philosophy relate to each other and to constructing an ultimate worldview for yourself. There are truths to be known, elusive facts that matter deeply but that are long debated. Some people just give up on knowing. But those who persist can make more progress than they might have imagined.We can be poor thinkers or good philosophers. But quality comes only with care. So, careful thinking makes for the best philosophy. Does your philosophy of life imprison you or liberate you? In this book, I try to dispel some of the myths and platitudes of our own age and get out of the cave of our false assumptions. We seek philosophical enlightenment, philosophical liberation. What do you mean? The grill was just delivered this afternoon, and the guy said it was ready to go.