London, British Library, Royal MS 5 E XI (Aldhelm, In Praise Of Virginity (London, British Library, Royal MS 5 E XI)) The medieval artist's palette was broad; a partial list of pigments is given below. [19] In addition, unlikely-sounding substances such as urine and earwax were used to prepare pigments. [20] Color

Decorative and illuminated calligraphy is present in the sacred texts of several religions, but among the Abrahamic faiths only Christian scripture is also illustrated extensively in grand copies. Within the Jewish tradition, figurative imagery is limited to certain books and biblical commentaries (never the Torah). This is based on a strict interpretation of the Second Commandment against graven images or likenesses (Exodus 20.4). However, in both Western and Eastern Christendom almost any type of decoration is possible, whether individual narrative images in letters, literal or allegorical illustration, or story-telling biblical picture books where text is minimal. The Last Supper, in Bible (the ‘Holkham Bible Picture Book’), c. 1327–1335, parchment, 28.5 x 21 cm ( The British Library) Carmine, also known as cochineal, where carminic acid from the Dactylopius coccus insect is mixed with an aluminum salt to produce the dye; Illuminated manuscripts offer some of the best evidence for our understanding of Christian artistic interpretations of the Bible. Through them we can begin to appreciate the value placed on such art. Only significant investment of resources – hours of labour and significant expenditure – made such works possible. Each manuscript, by definition, was made by hand (Latin manu scriptus: ‘written by hand’), and each illumination required the dedicated work of a highly skilled person, or persons. Each incurred significant cost in materials and the time spent on its production. No wonder, then, that so many illuminated manuscripts of the Bible were treasured in their day for more than their material value, and gained the status of gifts worthy of saints and kings.

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Verdigris, chemically cupric acetate, Cu(OAc) 2·(H 2O) 2, made historically by boiling copper plates in vinegar; With the myriad of Bible translations on the market today, few stand out. The ESV is one of the few, and surpasses the others in its simple yet elegant style.” de Hamel, Christopher (2001). The British Library Guide To Manuscript Illumination History and Techniques. Toronto: British Library. p.35. ISBN 0-8020-8173-8. Moscow, Russian State Library, museum collection of manuscripts, №1689 ( Codex Marianus, or Mariinsky Gospel)

The type of script depended on local customs and tastes. In England, for example, Textura was widely used from the 12th to 16th centuries, while a cursive hand known as Anglicana emerged around 1260 for business documents. [13] In the Frankish Empire, Carolingian minuscule emerged under the vast educational program of Charlemagne. [14] [15] The Hague, Koninklijke Bibliothek, MS 76 E 16 (Jacob van Maerlant, Rijmbijbel. and Die wrake van Jherusalem) Urbana, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, Pre-1650 MS 124 (Coronation book of Charles IV of France and Jeanne d'Évreux) Budapest, Országos Széchényi Könyvtár, ( Chronicon Hungariae Pictum (Chronica de Gestis Hungarorum or Képes Krónika or The Illuminated Chronicle 1360)) Melo, Maria J.; Castro, Rita; Nabais, Paula; Vitorino, Tatiana (2018). "The Book on how to make all the colour paints for illuminating books: unrevelling a Portuguese Hebrew Illuminators' manual". Heritage Science. 6: 44. doi: 10.1186/s40494-018-0208-z. S2CID 51885845.

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The Westminster Abbey Bestiary (c. 1275-1290 CE) – Created most likely in York, Britain. A bestiary is a book of animals, real or imaginary, defined and accompanied by illustrations. This genre originated in Greece in the 2nd century CE but was most popular during the Middle Ages when a number of them were produced to show a correlation between the natural world and the Christian vision of the Bible. The Westminster Abbey Bestiary is a fine example of this type of work. Drawing on both pre-Christian and biblical stories, the book presents an array of fascinating creatures across its 164 illustrations, each one represented in striking detail. Alexander, Jonathan A.G., Medieval Illuminators and their Methods of Work, 1992, Yale UP, ISBN 0300056893 Marcos, Juan-José (2017). "Fonts for Latin Paleography" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 April 2010 . Retrieved 24 November 2021. a b c Putnam A.M., Geo. Haven. Books and Their Makers During The Middle Ages. Vol. 1. New York: Hillary House, 1962. Print. Istanbul, Topkapi sarayi Museum, MS Ahmed III. 2115 (Ahmad ibn al-Husain ibn Ahnaf, The Book of the Art of Healing Horses)

Thompson, Edward M. (1911). "Illuminated Manuscripts". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol.14 (11thed.). pp.312–320.Durham, Cathedral Library, MSS A. II. 16, ff. 1-23, 34-86, 102 and Cambridge, Magdalene College Pepysian MS 2981 (18) (Insular Gospel Book Fragment) Handwriting Styles – The University of Nottingham". www.nottingham.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 24 November 2021 . Retrieved 24 November 2021.