McBirney, Alexander R. (1984). Igneous petrology. San Francisco, Calif.: Freeman, Cooper. ISBN 978-0-19-857810-9. Nave, R. "Bowen's Reaction Series". Hyperphysics. Georgia State University . Retrieved 24 March 2021. The majority of tholeiitic basalts are formed at approximately 50–100km depth within the mantle. Many alkali basalts may be formed at greater depths, perhaps as deep as 150–200km. [50] [51] The origin of high-alumina basalt continues to be controversial, with disagreement over whether it is a primary melt or derived from other basalt types by fractionation. [52] :65 Geochemistry their absolute ages can be obtained from various forms of radiometric dating and can be compared to adjacent geological strata, thus permitting calibration of the geological time scale; [4]

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Kapoho, Hawaii, was largely inundated by lava in June 2018, with its subdivision Vacationland Hawaii being completely destroyed. Decompression melting creates the ocean crust at mid-ocean ridges. It also causes volcanism in intraplate regions, such as Europe, Africa and the Pacific sea floor. There, it is variously attributed either to the rise of mantle plumes (the "Plume hypothesis") or to intraplate extension (the "Plate hypothesis"). [40] Effects of water and carbon dioxide Geoff C. Brown; C. J. Hawkesworth; R. C. L. Wilson (1992). Understanding the Earth (2nded.). Cambridge University Press. p.93. ISBN 0-521-42740-1.Ozerov, Alexei Y (January 2000). "The evolution of high-alumina basalts of the Klyuchevskoy volcano, Kamchatka, Russia, based on microprobe analyses of mineral inclusions" (PDF). Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 95 (1–4): 65–79. Bibcode: 2000JVGR...95...65O. doi: 10.1016/S0377-0273(99)00118-3. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 March 2020. their minerals and global chemistry give information about the composition of the lower crust or upper mantle from which their parent magma was extracted, and the temperature and pressure conditions that allowed this extraction; [3] Pinkerton, H; Bagdassarov, N (2004). "Transient phenomena in vesicular lava flows based on laboratory experiments with analogue materials". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 132 (2–3): 115–36. Bibcode: 2004JVGR..132..115B. doi: 10.1016/s0377-0273(03)00341-x. Silicate lavas are molten mixtures dominated by oxygen and silicon, the most abundant elements of the Earth's crust, with smaller quantities of aluminium, calcium, magnesium, iron, sodium, and potassium and minor amounts of many other elements. [6] Petrologists routinely express the composition of a silicate lava in terms of the weight or molar mass fraction of the oxides of the major elements (other than oxygen) present in the lava. [9] Dasgupta, R.; Hirschmann, M. M. (2007). "Effect of variable carbonate concentration on the solidus of mantle peridotite". American Mineralogist. 92 (2–3): 370–379. Bibcode: 2007AmMin..92..370D. doi: 10.2138/am.2007.2201. S2CID 95932394.

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Kokelaar, B.Peter; Durant, Graham P. (December 1983). "The submarine eruption and erosion of Surtla (Surtsey), Iceland". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 19 (3–4): 239–246. Bibcode: 1983JVGR...19..239K. doi: 10.1016/0377-0273(83)90112-9.Most magmas are fully melted only for small parts of their histories. More typically, they are mixes of melt and crystals, and sometimes also of gas bubbles. Melt, crystals, and bubbles usually have different densities, and so they can separate as magmas evolve. a b Sonder, I; Zimanowski, B; Büttner, R (2006). "Non-Newtonian viscosity of basaltic magma". Geophysical Research Letters. 330 (2): L02303. Bibcode: 2006GeoRL..33.2303S. doi: 10.1029/2005GL024240. a b c Philpotts, Anthony R.; Ague, Jay J. (2009). Principles of igneous and metamorphic petrology (2nded.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521880060.